Ethnicity (race)

UK:

• Caucasian
• Black
• Asian (Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Chinese)
• Gyspies
• Multi racial

USA:

• Caucasian
• Black
• Latino
• Mexican
• Asian (Chinese
• Native American (Indian, Vietnamese)
• Filipino 
• Inuits 
• Muti racial
• Hispanic

Theories

As Pieterse forcefully put it in 1992; “The legacy of several hundred years of western expansion and hegemony, manifested in racism and exoticism, continues to be recycled in western culture in the stereotypical images of non-western cultures.”

Sarita Malik (1998): "Whiteness has been naturalized, as though it is an invisible ‘norm.’ When it is of course an ethnic group like any other."

Malik argues: “Many feel that Black and Asian audiences are still not sufficiently catered for and that insensitivity towards issues of race and ethnicity still exist. The reality of a lived multiculturalism is not represented in the British media." 

THE FUNCTIONALIST Vs THE MARXIST VIEW
Broadly speaking, there are two key attitudes towards depictions of race in the media:
1) The functionalist view, argues that program makers ‘cater for what the public wants’ and simply reflects attitudes, tastes and opinions on ethnicity;
2) The other (the Marxist view) is that those in control of media output shape how audiences view race.
The functionalist view, like the ‘reflectionist’ view, argues that the media are merely a window on the world, implying that the media are inert industries which simply mirror real life. It overlooks the social construction of images in the cultural field, and the fact that a medium, such as television, constructs a reality and world of its own (Malik, 1998).
The Marxist view relies on the assumption that the ruling elite deny space and access for competing ideologies and images. Their argument follows that the media merely reproduce the ‘dominant ideology’ as a means of enabling the ruling class to maintain dominant over less powerful groups in order to establish a common consensus in society. Thus certain images of Black people as deviant trouble-makers, for example, are perpetuated by the media in order to encourage the mass audience to view blacks in a certain way. This, in turn, ensures that Black people are categorized as such and reinforce a dominant ideology that suggests that Black people pose a threat to civilized status quo.

Medhurst (1998) "They are awful because they are not like us.".

Regional Identity

Theories

Theorist Andrew Higson (1998) writes; "Identity is generally understood to be the shared identity of naturalised inhabitants of a particular political-geographic space- this can be a particular nation or region."

Benedict Anderson (1983) maintains that the media play a vital role in constructing a national/regional identity a in reality the nation if too big for everyone to know each other yet they often have shared values; "The unification of people in the modern world is achieved not by military but by cultural means, in particular the media system enables people (of a nation or region) to feel part of a coherent, meaningful and homogenous community."

Higson (1998); "Stereotyping is a form of shorthand... a way of establishing a character... that often reducing the character to the most basic form so that the stereotype often becomes comic." 

Higson (1998); "No wonder then that a particular characterisation may be criticised for being stereotypical meaning it lacks a realistic dimension, it fails to match up to the reality of identity."

Stereotypes

Birmingham (Brummie)

• "Buuuurmingham"
• Lack of intelligence
• Working class
• Tea and curry
• The accent, made famous by the likes of Ozzy Osbourne, Jasper Carrot and Adrian Chiles, was received so negatively it was ranked “less intelligent” than silence
• As far as TV and film are concerned, modern Birmingham might as well not exist
• Heavily obsessed with football

Cornwall

• Pasties
• Farmers
• Fields
• Beach weather
• Holiday
• Miners
• Tractors
• Pirates
• Fish and chips
• Cider
• Uneducated
• Inbred/backward
• "Me 'ansom", "Me lover"

Devon

• Everyone lives in a cottage
• Uneducated 
• Inbred
• Farmers
• Confused with Cornwall

Essex

• Chavy/cockney accent
• Blonde with fake tan
• "Shut up" and "Well jell"
• 'The Only Way is Essex'
• Alcoholics who party a lot
• Unintelligent

Geordie

• Is both a regional nickname for a person from the larger Tyneside region of North East England and the name of the Northern English dialect spoken by its inhabitants. The term is associated with Tyneside, south Northumberland and northern parts of County Durham
• Women going out to clubs in underwear- no one brings a coat
• "Pet"
• Don't feel the cold
• "Neet" = "Night"
• Slags
• Friendly
• Gregg's round every corner
• 'Geordie Shore'
• Alcoholics/partiers
• Attention seeking

Liverpool (scouser)

• Obsessed with football
• "Ya ma"- best comeback ever
• People in Tesco wearing pyjamas and ugg boots
• "You'll never walk alone"
• 'Hollyoaks'
• Most popular accent for mimicking for comedic effect
• Chavs and drug users
• Rough schools
• Full of criminals
• Cheesy chips
• Hair rollers in hair
• "Birds"
• Swear a lot
• Thieves
• Argumentative- get in a lot of fights
• Tracksuits/shellsuits
• Thick accent- unintelligent

London

• Crime
• Chavs/'Roadmen'
• Grime
• Tourists
• Gangsters
• 'Eastenders'
• Rude
• Rich
• Drug users
• Rough area
• West London- posh

Manchester (Manchunian)

• Lower working class
• Rude and loud
• Two halves- 'casual' who enjoys music like Oasis or a 'chav' who wears tracksuits and gets pregnant at 16
• "United or City"- football fans
• Council flats
• 'Shameless'
• Wannabe hipster
• Fake tan, hair and nails
• Living on benefits

Wales

• All play rugby
• Herd sheep/mine coal
• Sing in choirs
• "Sheep shaggers"
• Bad temper
• Whine about the English

Yorkshire

• Yorkshire puddings
• Crude pessimists
• "Eh up"
• Bossy women
• Stupid
• Yorkshire tea
• Don't use the word "the"
• "Our lass/lad"
• Swear a lot
• Brutally honest

Scotland

• Bagpipes
• Gingers
• Men all wear kilts (regardless of the weather)
• Haggis
• Hate the English
• All know the cry to Braveheart
• Drink a lot (whiskey)
• Proud of their culture
• Traditional

Colloquial Dialect- An area's slang terms
Cornish-
Oggy: Pasty
Call me dreckly: Call me later
Proper job: You've done well
Wasson?: greeting, What's up

Class

Downton Abbey's poster was designed to revolve around their class and straight away denote to the audience what class the characters are a part of. This is made clear from the mise-en-scene used. Their costumes are stereotypical for upper class people from a early 20th century- long, pretty dresses and suits as casual wear, and their clothes cover their entire body. Their poster also includes maids/butlers, which only the richest families had/have. The background, a mansion, also suggests they're a very upper class family as they've been able to afford it. They all look very done up with straight, serious looking faces. Upper class people are stereotyped as being more uptight, meaning even just their facial expressions connote their class. The colour palette used is quite plain and simple.


The colour palette used for this poster is much brighter which gives it a more trashy appearance. Their clothing is much cheaper looking and, especially with the female character, doesn't cover their whole body. The props used, the beer bottle and the blow torch being used to light a cigarette are common for lower class families (not necessarily the blow torch, that's more for comedic effect). Their facial expressions come across as very silly and immature, connoting that they're not an upper class family as richer families appear more formal and strict.

Theories

Keith Gandal's theory (2007) states that lower class people are portrayed as a; "Cultural other," through fashions that deviate from the middle and upper classes. 

A good example of a 'stupid' working class males

Andy Medhurst's 1998 theory; "They are awful because they are not like us," (the us being the middle class producers of media texts).

Richard Butsch (1992) who says working class males in the media are presented as; "Incompetent and ineffectual, often a buffoon, well-intentioned but dumb. In almost all working-class series, the male is flawed, some more than others."

Keith Gandal, in 2007 said that target audiences are drawn in by the; "Sentimental rags-to-riches story," because they like to think of poor people making it big through music and can relate to the lifestyle they have chosen because it is what they might do if they had money.

Practise Essay

How is class portrayed in the extract of Shameless through:

Camera work

Mise-en-scene

Sound

& Editing

In this extract of Shameless, the theories of Keith Gandal (2007), Andy Medhurst (1998) and Richard Butsch (1992) are both supported and disrupted through the media language present in the clip. I will now explore this in more detail with reference to how; camera work, mise-en-scene, sound and editing contribute to constructions of class representation.

In the first 10 seconds, a variety of establishing shots are used to straight away show the audience the setting of the show (flats and council houses). The particular area used connotes that they're lower/working class as it's very urban looking. The angle used is a high angle which makes the audience look down on the lower class area which supports Medhurst's theory that "They are awful because they are not like us." It also uses a non-diegetic voice over of the main character to introduce the characters and the show, but the accent of the character is very chav sounding which is a common stereotype of lower class people, which further connotes their class. 16 seconds into the clip shows off the main character who's narrating the title sequence. The mise-en-scene here, his messy appearance (long hair, stubble and plain clothing) support Gandal's theory that lower class people are portrayed as a; "Cultural other," through fashions that deviate from the middle and upper classes. In another shot just after it the mise-en-scene further suggests their class by using non branded bread which will separate them from a majority of the audience, supporting Medhurst's theory.  His kids are portrayed as slightly violent, even towards his father which fits stereotypes that lower class people are more common to take part in criminal activities. Continuity editing is used for the sake of making the title sequence flow properly, but the camera movement used for a majority of the shots is quite shaky which supports Butsch's theory that states that working class males in the media are presented as; "Incompetent and ineffectual, often a buffoon". The shaky camera movement supports this because the narrator is a working class male, and the audience are used to a still camera supported by a tripod. An eye-line match is used whilst the main character is lying on the floor, but is different because the shots switch between a birds eye view and a worms eye view. By looking up at the kids and down on the adult it gives them more power, and this unusual idea separates their family from the audience which supports Andy Medhurst's theory about being "awful because they are not like us". 

Towards the end of the title sequence dark lighting is used which will further support Medhurst's theory as darkness connotes bad things. Continuity editing is used when showing the people surrounding the campfire and a variety of shots are used to show off the different characters involved. All of them support Gandal's theory that lower class people are portrayed as "cultural other" through their fashion. The youth all support Osgerby's theory that goes onto argue that; “The portrayal of youth is not entirely pessimistic,” he argues that “Mixed metaphors” appear when analysing the representation of youth. He claims; “Dual stereotyping of youth,” creates these mixed metaphors that Dick Hebdige (1988) termed; “Youth as fun,” and “Youth as trouble maker.”

Disablity

Disabled characters

• Walter White Jr- Breaking Bad (the actor and character have cerebral palsy)
• Sheldon Cooper- The Big Bang Theory (portrayed as very smart but annoying, quite accurate with the disability he has)
• Bran Stark- Game of Thrones (his character was given special powers unlike any other character in the series)
• Adelaide- American Horror Story S1 (character and actress have down syndrome)
• Maudrey- American Horror Story S3 (same actress as before, but the story doesn't remotely revolve around her disability).
• 95% of disabled characters are played by abled actors

Theories

Jessica Evans (1998) drawing on the works of Freud and other psychoanalysis, states;

"Disabled people are seen as childish, dependent and underdeveloped and are regarded as 'other' and are punished by being excluded from ordinary life. Thus popular images and rhetorics of disabled people abound which comfort us with people who are imperfect, helpless, unattractive, disgusting, shitty, dribbling."

As Cumberbatch & Negrine (1992), Barnes (1992) and Longmore (1987) point out, studies of the representation show that disabled people are screened out of television fiction or else occur in a limited number of roles.

As Jordanova stated in 1989;

"The idea of otherness is complicated, but certain themes are common: the treatment of others as more like an object, something to be managed and possessed, and as dangerous, wild, threatening. At the same time, the other becomes an entity whose very separateness inspires curiosity, invites inquiring knowledge." 

Medhurts argued in terms of power relations and the constructions of stereotypes; "they are awful because they are not like us" (1997).

It is seriously worth noting that theory concerning disability can be applied to the elderly with ease. According to Evans (1998):

"Old people in our culture are also segregated and treated as though they are waiting to die. There are close associations between dependency, illness, dying and death. It seems that increasingly in our culture there are pressures that encourage a reversion to infantile feelings which have to be madly defended against."

Practice Essay

How is disability portrayed in the extract of Call Girl through:

Camera work

Mise-en-scene

Sound

& Editing

In the extract of Call Girl, the theories of Jessica Evans (1998), Cumberbatch & Neurone (1992), Barnes (1992) and Longmore (1987), Jordanova (1989) and Medhurst (1997) are both supported and disrupted through the media language present in the clip. I will now explore this in more detail with reference to to how; camera work, mise-en-scene, sound and editing contribute to constructions of disability representation.

The first shot is medium long shot of the call girl. Non-diegetic music is playing to emphasise her sexuality- supporting Laura Mulvey's theory (1975) that women are portrayed "as erotic objects of desire for the characters within the story, and as erotic objects of desire for the spectator." The entire narrative of the show supports and revolves around that theory. When she opens the door to reveal the disabled character the music stops, taking away his sexuality. The camera tilts down to reveal him, changing the shot type from a low angle to a high angle, making him appear powerless as the audience are looking down on him, which supports Andy Medhurst's theory (1997) that in terms of power relations and the constructions of stereotypes, "they are awful because they are not like us". The mise-en-scene used, his wheelchair, quickly makes his story revolve around his disability. When the camera tilts up to reveal his dad in the shot, it gives him power over the disabled character, supporting Evans theory that disabled people are "seen as childish" and "dependent". The mise-en-scene of this episode, their facial expressions (shown clearly by a large amount of close ups and medium close ups), creates an awkward atmosphere, which supports Evan's theory that disabled people "are regarded as 'other' and are punished by being excluded from ordinary life"- people feel uncomfortable around them as they're not necessarily deemed as 'normal'. The lack of music also adds to the awkward atmosphere, along with the lack of diegetic dialogue. The only camera movement used is a tracking shot to follow the action of the characters, which makes the scene drag out for longer, making it seem even more uncomfortable (further supporting Evan's theory that disabled people are "regarded as 'other'". Shot reverse shot is used during the conversation, along with eyeliner match. This shows the audience that the call girl is making eye contact with him, which disrupts Medhurt's theory that states "they are awful because they are not like us", despite feeling awkward she's still treating him like a human being. 

The father's treatment of his son; taking him to a call girl, getting the money for him, carrying him to the bed and kissing him on the end further supports Evan's theory that "popular images and rhetorics of disabled people abound which comfort us with people who are imperfect" and "helpless". Whenever the dad is talking in the same shot as the call girl and over the shoulder shot is used to make the audience feel as if they're watching the scene from the call girl's point of view. Due to the disabled character being a male you'd expect him to support Gauntlett's gender theory that "images of the congenitally rugged, super-independant, extra-strong macho man still circulate in popular culture." He also disrupts Mackillon's theory that "males are now used in the similar way as women, in so far as they are being presented as sex objects and are seen to be more image conscious and sensitive." A medium close up is used to show the disabled character's facial expression when the call girl is locking the door- which appears very nervous and almost scared. This supports Evan's theory that "Disabled people are seen as childish, dependent and underdeveloped". The dialogue once she discovers he's nervous shows that she views him the same way as in Evan's theory, and also supports Jordanova's theory which stated, "At the same time, the other becomes an entity whose very separateness inspires curiosity, invites inquiring knowledge." She's unsure on how to act around him. A medium long shot is used to show more of her body to let the audience see her body language, which further supports Jordanova's theory that she's curious about him and isn't sure what to do. A mixture of close up and medium close up shots are used whilst she interacts with him to show the audience her expression of pity, which supports Evan's theory that disabled people are viewed as "childish" because although she's a call girl she's acting very different around him than she would with her other characters. 

Parallel editing is then used to flick between the two scenes of the call girl and the disabled character, and the father in his van. This type of editing enables the audience to see the father at the same time, which drags out the scene and further emphasises awkwardness, supporting Evan's theory that states disabled people are "regarded as 'other'". The diegetic sound effects in this shot, along with the diegetic opera music accidentally played in one shit, further emphasises the awkward atmosphere. When it switches back to the call girl and the disabled character, non-diegetic background music starts and a variation of close ups and cut ins of their bodies are used. The fact that there's a disabled character around a call girl's house disrupts Evan's theory of disabled characters being viewed as "unattractive" and "disgusting", but the dialogue when she touches him supports it as he says he's never been touched before, which further makes the audience view him as "other". The continuity editing used makes the scene runs smoothly and avoids attention being drawn away from what's happening on the shot, which supports Evan's theory that disabled people are "childish" and "dependent"- even though she's a call girl she's treating him like a child. The action is slow, further supporting Evan's theory.

In conclusion, the disabled character in this scene supports disability theories through the use of camera work, sound, editing and mise-en-scene. Although slightly disrupting Evan's theory of disabled people being "shitty" and "dribbling", he definitely supports the rest of her theory stating that disabled people are "childish and dependent". This is mainly shown through mise-en-scene (helped with camera shot types).

Youth

• Drug addicts/alcholics 
• Sex addicts
• Troublesome
• Chavvy (swear a lot)
• Lazy
• Anti-social
• Ruthless
• Miscreants 
• Thugs
• Messy

In 1904 Stanley Hall wrote Adolescence in 2 volumes in 1904, in this text he puts forward a theory known as the ‘Storm & Stress Model’, despite being written over 100 years ago it is still relevant to modern youth stereotyping in music magazines. In short, Hall argues the following:
“ Adolescence is inherently a time of storm & stress when all young people go through some degree of emotional and behavioural upheaval, before establishing a more stable equilibrium at adulthood." Hall also argued that:
1. The common mood of teenagers is a state of depression.
2. Criminal activity increases between the ages of 12 & 24.
3. Young people are extreme and need excitement; “Youth must have excitement and if this is not at hand in the form of moral intellectual enthusiasms it is more prone to be sought in; sex, drink or drugs.”

However, Osgerby goes onto argue that; “The portrayal of youth is not entirely pessimistic,” he argues that “Mixed metaphors” appear when analysing the representation of youth. He claims; “Dual stereotyping of youth,” creates these mixed metaphors that Dick Hebdige (1988) termed; “Youth as fun,” and “Youth as trouble maker.”

It is seriously worth noting that theory concerning disability can be applied to the elderly with ease. According to Evans (1998):

"Old people in our culture are also segregated and treated as though they are waiting to die. There are close associations between dependency, illness, dying and death. It seems that increasingly in our culture there are pressures that encourage a reversion to infantile feelings which have to be madly defended against."

Practice Essay

How is youth portrayed in the extract of Skins through:
Camera work
Mise-en-scene
Sound
& Editing

In the extract of Skins the theories of Stanley Hall (1994), and Osgerby and Hebdige (1988) are both disrupted and supported through the media language present in the clip. I will now explore this in more detail with reference to how; camera work, mise-en-scene, sound and editing contribute to constructions of youth representation.

The opening credit for Skins use very upbeat music along with a stylised title sequence that involves a variety of shots of the characters being rebellious (doing drugs, making out etc) but having fun, which supports Hebdige and Osgerby’s theory that youth are mixed metaphors- they can be betrayed as trouble makers, but also as fun. Effy’s character seems to more so represent Stanley Hall’s theory that the common mood of teenagers is a state of depression as during the title sequence her character is shown as looking quite depressed. The editing used is also very exciting with a fun like appearance, so along with the music and bright colour palette used for the images and editing, supports Hebdige and Osgerby's theory of youth also being fun. 

The very first shot of it is an extreme close up of the protagonist, Tony, that zooms out. The lighting used is very particular, as it makes the character's face appear half light and half dark, which is a subtle form of support to Hebdige and Osgerby's theory- the dark being a metaphor for his rebellious side, and the light being a metaphor for his fun side. Rather than just supporting Stanley Hall's theory that argues, "Adolescence is inherently a time of storm & stress when all young people go through some degree of emotional and behavioural upheaval". It begins with no music, just the diegetic sound of a bell ringing in the background. The zoom out reveals to the audience mise-en-scene of the bedroom to help construct the character. It reveals hid bed sheets- with two naked people on them. This supports Hall's theory that youth are obsessed with sex, but his theories are disrupted when a diegetic sound effect of an alarm rings out, connoting that the character isn't lazy (which is further proven by the fact he works out in the next few shots). The character the proceeds to turn on the stereo which is vital towards representing the youth as the diegetic music playing is hip hop with sexual lyrics, further going along with Hall's theory that he's obsessed with sex. This is further proven when he's seen checking out the naked next door neighbour (who seemingly supports youth theories, despite being an adult). This is shown with the editing- shot reverse shot and eyeline match, to show the protagonist and what he's looking at. The camera movement used for his point of view is shaky, further emphasising his sexual excitement, which further supports Hall's theory. His sister, Effy is shown in one of the following shots. Once again the mise-en-scene is used to represent youth as she is dressed provocatively and her appearance is disheveled, giving the impression that her night has been spent partying and having one night stands. She also appears miserable, and all of this supports Hall's theory that "the common mood of teenagers is a state of depression", and his other youth theory that young people are extreme and need excitement; “Youth must have excitement and if this is not at hand in the form of moral intellectual enthusiasms it is more prone to be sought in; sex, drink or drugs." High angle shots are used when looking at her character, and although this comes across as it being from Tony's point of view, by looking down on her. This makes her appear inferior, which more so represents gender as he is given all the power via a low angle shot, following Gauntlett's theory that argues men are presented as independent and strong.


After this scenario Tony turns up some loud rock diegetic music on his stereo. A cut in is used to show that Tony is purposely being trouble, and a close up of his face is used to show how much fun he's having. This follows Hebdige's theory that termed "Youth as fun," and "Youth as trouble maker".  Diegetic dialogue from outside the room is used to introduce Tony's father before he's actually shown, straight away telling the audience a lot about his character as when people describe others as you hear them before you see them, it only has negative connotations. His father is a peculiar character, as despite a lack of theories revolving around middle aged men, he breaks the stereotypes by following Hall's youth theory that adolescence is inherently a time of storm & stress when all young people go through some degree of emotional and behavioural upheaval, before establishing a more stable equilibrium at adulthood. This makes the audience view him as immature due to his foul language and bad temper towards his son. The mise-en-scene, in this case focusing on his father's facial expressions, and the sound, focusing on his father's tone and dialogue, suggests that Tony is no stranger to winding up his father, which supports Osgerby's theory that argues “Mixed metaphors” appear when analysing the representation of youth. Parallel editing is used to show Tony with his father and Effy escaping upstairs and getting changed to clearly contrast the two representations of fun. Tony is clearly following Osgerby and Hebidge's theories, whilst Effy (helped by her attire and high camera angles used) follows Hall's theories that the common mood for teenagers is depression, and that young people are extreme and need excitement; “Youth must have excitement and if this is not at hand in the form of moral intellectual enthusiasms it is more prone to be sought in; sex, drink or drugs.” After the argument, a cut in shot is used of Tony's drawer to bring attention to the fact it's tidy. Youth are stereotyped as being messy and lazy, but Tony's organisation skills of his clothing proves that he's breaking stereotypes.

A zoom out shot is used whilst Tony is sat on the toilet, to slowly show the scene off to the audience. The mise-en-scene is vital here, as he's showing reading a penguin classic. This disrupts Hall, Osgerby and Hebdige's theories of youth being depressed, needing excitement, being troublemakers or fun. Very rarely are youth represented as being academic. The dialogue between Tony and his father show that he's a troublemaker, but Tony's facial expression shows that he's also fun- supporting Hebdige's theory. A series of shots are used in a short space of time, cut ins and close ups, to emphasise the length of time Tony is taking in order to wind his dad up. An eyeline match is used again once Tony is in the garden to show the audience that he is once again checking out his neighbour and smirking, supporting Hall's theory that teenagers are obsessed with sex. Although an adult, she is represented as being no better than him in this department. When in the kitchen, a low angle shot is used to show the father character speaking to Tony. Although this angle is typically used to give the character power, in this context it becomes ironic as he attempts to have power. Whilst his father is getting a drill out from under the sink, a close up shot of his bum is used, along with medium close up/close up shots of the family reacting in a comical fashion.  Because Skins is through a teenagers perspective of life, it supports Hebdige's theory that youth can be fun, so disrupts Hall's theory that their common mood is being depressed, as Tony's character clearly appears to get enjoyment out of small events.

A tracking shot of Tony is used as he leaves his house, and then parallel editing is used to show off the character he is attempting to call- Sid. This character is represented purely through mise-en-scene (his horrifically untidy room) and partially dialogue (his grunts and cussing). This character, quite unlike Tony's, very accurately represents the stereotypical view of a teenager- lazy. A close up shot of his phone is used, with the mise-en-scene in the background, in this case a bong, supports Hall's theory about youth being strongly associated with criminal activity, which he argued increases between the ages of 12-24. When the camera goes back to Tony a tracking shot is used yet again, which appears to emphasise (especially in contrast to Sid's character) how he breaks the stereotypes of being lazy. Tony's line of dialogue to his friend, although not much supports Hall's theory yet again that youth are obsessed with sex- this character in particular had sexual like bed covers, sexual music playing, checked out his naked neighbour and spoke casually to his friend about it. In the first five minutes of Skins, the audience can easily see that youth are represented as sex crazed.

Sexuality

Theorist ANDY MEDHURST (1998) claims that sexuality disrupt representation claims, like those made by Dyer (“How we are seen determines in part how we are treated; how we treat others on how we see them; such seeing comes from representation” Dyer, 1993), because in the REAL world you cannot ‘see’ sexuality. Unless someone tells you they are homosexual you have no way of knowing.However, in the media stereotypes are used to explore ideological positions about sexuality. “Films and television comedies are full of images of gay men as effeminate screaming queens…It chooses that aspect of gay male behaviour (SELECTION), inflates it into the defining male characteristic of male homosexuality (MAGNIFICATION), then establish it as the most easily recognizable image (REDUCTION).”“This is why stereotypes of sexuality strive so vigorously to create two, polarized sexualities, hetro and straight, and to insist with such obsessive reductiveness that people who belong to those poles are easily identifiable – hence the recurring presence across media texts of the screaming queen and his female equivalent the butch dyke.”

Stereotypical lesbian

Stereotypical gay male

Star Trek is a film that actually breaks the stereotypes. Gay characters storylines tend to only revolve around their sexuality, but in Star Trek they publicise on the male character's sexuality by simply showing a shot of him holding hands with a male- they don't make a big deal about it, and don't use him as a stereotype of a gay man. 

Practice Essay

How is sexuality portrayed in the extract of Eastenders through:

Camera work

Mise-en-scene

Sound

& editing

In this particular extract of Eastenders, the two homosexual males both support and disrupt Andy Medhurst's (1988) "queer" theories. I will now explore this idea in more detail, go into depth on the camera work, mise-en-scene, sound and editing.

This scene begins with a medium close up of the openly gay male, with his future lover walking in through the door in the background. The openly gay males breaks Andy Medhurt's theory that states how gay males are seen as the "screaming queen"- in Eastenders he is portrayed as butch, which more so supports Gauntlett's of how males in general are portrayed in film. The other male character supports Medhurst's theories more so, but goes against his stat

Gender

Laura Mulvey 1975

'As erotic objects of desire for the characters within the story, and as erotic objects of desire for the spectator.' 

David Gauntlett 2002

'Images of the congenitally rugged, super-independant, extra-strong macho man still circulate in popular culture.'

Mackillon 2002

In 2002 Mackillon said males are now used in the similar way as women, in so far as they are being presented as sex objects and are seen to be more image conscious and sensitive.

MALES-

• Heroic
• Attractive (mainly the hero, can get away with more unnattractive males characters than females in a movie/TV show)
• Strong
• Violent 
• Brave
• Powerful
• Muscular

FEMALES-

• Powerless
• Over-sexualised (18-25)
• (30+ especially) typical wives/mothers
• Skinny (only fat as a joke)
• Victim (specifically in horrors and actions)
• Weak

Practice essay

How is gender portrayed in the extract of Hustle through:

• Camera work
• Mise-en-scene
• Sound 
• & Editing? 
• Theory
• Look to the question

In the extract of Hustle the theories of Mulvey (1975), Mackillon (2002) and Gauntlett (2002) are both supported and distrupted through the media language present in the clip. I will now explore this in more detail with reference to how; camera work, mise-en-scene, sound and editing contribute to constructions of gender representation. 

The opening shot is a low angle medium close up of middle-aged male wearing an expensive suit. The camera angle gives him masculine status as it makes him powerful which could fit Gauntlet’s 2002 theory however, the way he is standing is not a masculine pose which means his character also fits Mackillon’s theory as he is looking more feminine. In the background there is a younger female character shown coming up the stairs to the clothing shop, the positioning seems to support traditional gender roles as she appears lower down, and therefore less important, than the lead male character. The opening scene is accompanied by non-diegetic music that changes when the women comes into shot, it is quite feminine and it contributes to sexualising the female character in a way that fits Mulvey’s 1975 theory. Furthermore, it contributes to de-masculinising the male character to a point where he almost appears camp, which also fits with the dress shop setting and his job. The shots are linked together with a sound bridge and continuity editing is used to not distract the viewer. 

The non-diegetic music ends when the diegetic dialogue between the worker and the second woman begins, to enable no attention is being drawn away from their conversation. This second woman in the scene disrupts Mulvey’s theory that women are used as ‘erotic objects’, but is instead portrayed as the other version of women in films or TV shows- the house wife. She appears middle-aged and not very attractive, and during their conversation eyeline match editing is used. Shot reverse shot is used along with continuity editing to make the scene flow nicely, and so as not to draw attention away from what is happening. When she speaks, a high angle over the shoulder shot is used, making her appear powerless, inferior and weak. When the male character speaks, a low angle over the shoulder shot is used, making him appear superior and more masculine (although his facial expressions contradict that statement). The woman also avoids eye contact, further contributing to the male’s appearance of power. Throughout a majority of this shot the other female, the one who perfectly supports Mulvey’s theory, is shown with her back to the camera. These shots support Mulvey’s theory, as despite the fact there’s a conversation going on her body is shown off. The feminine non-diegetic music starts up again towards the end of the dialogue as she walks off.

A slight panning close up shot is used when displaying to the audience how attractive the blonde female is, from her hand to her face, which further supports Mulvey’s theory as the woman is clearly only being used for her attractive features. A tracking shot is then used whilst the male walks over to her, to emphasise the importance of her character. During their dialogue, despite the fact she is (like the first female) shorter than the male, they don’t use a high angle over the shoulder shot but keep it eye-level, making her come across as more powerful. The feminine non diegetic music playing further emphasises her sexuality, whereas with the other female it stopped. The male’s change in attitude (connoted by his tone of voice and gestures), proves part of Mulvey’s theory that women are used as erotic objects for the characters in the scene, and not just the audience. Continuity editing is more commonly used throughout the scene, but when the woman tries the dress on they use a fade to black to show that some time has passed. A tilt close up shot is used to display the woman’s whole body in a tight dress, further supporting Mulvey’s theory as the camera work ensures that the audience can admire all of her curves.

Sound

Diegetic sound is 'realistic sound' where the source is visible on screen or where the source is implied to be present in the action even if the sound source is out of shot (e.g. a door slamming in another room or sirens in the distance) common examples of diegetic sound include: 

- Dialogue (characters voices)
- Sounds made by objects
- music coming from instruments shown on screen
- ambient sound (background noise that would be present)
N.B. this links to what we discussed last week in terms of TV Drama's needing to create a realistic believable 'diegetic' world for the viewer - sound is part of the verisimilitude.
Non-diegetic sound is sound where the source is not present in the action nor looks like it is meant to be; common examples include:
- Mood music
- Dramatic sound effects that do not match the sound anything on screen would make.
- Narrators commentary.

Non-diegtic

Title music: theme tunes (connote genre/represent TV drama).

Score/incidental music: orchestral music used to connote tone/atmosphere.

Sound motifs: sounds associated with certain character (often a villain like Darth Vadar in Star Wars) that connote something good/bad is about to happen.

Sound effects: used to connote atmosphere (used a lot in horrors, like in this example video).

Voice over: often used to give the viewer an insight into the thoughts of a character (creating a bond between the audience and character), set the scene or progress the narrative.

Diegetic

Synchronous sound: sounds that match what you see on screen.

Sound effects: realistic sounds that match the action on screen creating realism and/or connoting atmosphere e.g. gun shots, door opening/closing.

Dialogue: characters speaking (dialogue progresses the narrative and reveals the character's personality/views to the viewer). 

Ambient sound: natural background noise you would hear if the scene on screen were real - this is vital when creating realism. 

Editing

Continuity editing

A system of cutting used to maintain continuous and clear narrative action by following a set of rules. It's meant to be unnoticeable and smooth. For continuity editing to work smoothly, it has to follow the 180 degree rule- which means the camera can only film on one side of the action. This rule can be broken, but mostly in films of the horror genre to help the audience feel more uncomfortable. Another rule that needs to be followed is when you join shots together using shot reverse shot, you need to be careful about eyeline match. This means that the gaze of the character in one shot has to line up with the person or thing they’re looking at in the next shot, as in Shots 3 and 4. To get this right, you should put both camera positions at a similar distance from the ‘axis’. You should also frame the shots with looking space or nose room (more space in the direction they are looking). If one character is higher than another, the taller character should be looking down and the smaller character should be looking up.

Parallel editing 

Parallel editing (or cross cutting) is the technique of alternating two or more scenes that often happen simultaneously but in different locations. If the scenes are simultaneous, they occasionally culminate in a single place, where the relevant parties confront each other. It's a type of continuity editing. 



Match-cut (or graphic cut)

Technical term for when a director cuts from one scene to a totally different one, but has objects in the two scenes "matched," so that they occupy the same place in the shot's frame. The director thus makes a discursive alignment between objects that may not have any connection on the level of story. Match cuts offer directors with one way to create visual metaphors in film since the match cut can suggest a relation between two disparate objects. The match cut, however, is designed to completely hide the transition from the audience.

 

 

Shot reverse shot

Film technique used to show two characters looking at one another. It is, in effect a double eyeline match. In a given shot-reverse shot sequence of two characters having a conversation, the first shot is a character looking offscreen. The second shot would be a shot taken from the reverse angle (hence the name reverse shot) of the second character, the object of the first character's gaze, looking back at the first character. A shot-reverse shot sequence will cut between the two shots and is usually bookended by an establishing shot.The shot-reverse shot is a form of continuity editing, and my first example for continuity editing uses this technique.

Slow/fast motion

 The technique of slowing down or speeding up a scene.

Fade

A video fade is when a shot gradually fades to (or from) a single colour, usually black or white. A fade is different to a crossfade, which is a transition directly between two shots rather than one shot to a colour.
Fading to/from black usually signals the beginning and end of a scene. The timing of the fades indicates the importance of the change in time and/or location between scenes — a slower fade with more time spent on black indicates a more significant end/beginning. A fairly quick fade to and from black could indicate a time lapse of a few minutes or hours, whereas a long drawn-out fade indicates a much bigger change.

CGI

Computer-generated imagery. This can range from a green screen to an animated beast. CGI is used for visual effects because the quality is often higher and effects are more controllable than other more physically based processes, such as constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring extras for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other technology. It's used mainly in science fiction films, but as CGI quality becomes more realistic, a lot of movies are relying on it a it.

Sound bridge

A sound bridge is a type of sound editing that occurs when sound carries over a visual transition in a film. This type of editing provides a common transition in the continuity editing style because of the way in which it connects the mood, as suggested by the music, throughout multiple scenes. For example, music might continue through a scene change or throughout and montage sequence to tie the scenes together in a creative and thematic way. Another form of a sound bridge can help lead in or out of a scene, such as when dialogue or music occurs before or after the speaking character is scene by the audience.

Long take

In filmmaking, a long take is a shot lasting much longer than the conventional editing pace either of the film itself or of films in general. Significant camera movement and elaborate blocking are often elements in long takes, but not necessarily so. The term "long take" should not be confused with the term "long shot", which refers to the distance between the camera and its subject and not to the temporal length of the shot itself. The length of a long take was originally limited to how much film a motion picture camera could hold, but the advent of digital video has considerably lengthened the maximum potential length of a take.

Iris in/out

Most commonly recognised as a technique used in Bond films, this edit is a type of wipe shape that can be circular through the use of the camera's iris. By closing the iris, a blurry circle sweeps inwards to the middle of the frame, drawing attention to the subject occupying this centre space.

Match on action

Match on action is a technique of filming used in many sorts of films. It consists of connecting 2 shots together in which a character finishes off an action in the second shot that was started in the first one, for example a clip of a character walking through a door in which he opens the door being filmed from behind then the clip cuts to him walking through from the other one.

 

Jump cut

A jump cut is a cut in film editing in which two sequential shots of the same subject are taken from camera positions that vary only slightly. This type of edit gives the effect of jumping forwards in time. It is a manipulation of temporal space using the duration of a single shot, and fracturing the duration to move the audience ahead. Jump cuts, in contrast to continuity editing, draw attention to the constructed nature of the film.